Types of food fraud

The following taxonomy is based on the GFSI classification and the work of the Food Fraud Prevention Think Tank.

6.1 Substitution

Total or partial replacement of an authentic product, ingredient or component with another of lower value, different identity or inferior quality, without declaring it.

Examples:

• Extra virgin olive oil partially substituted with sunflower or soybean oil
• Wild salmon substituted with farmed salmon
• Saffron substituted with safflower or dyed turmeric
• Beef substituted with horse meat

6.2 Addition (dilution)

Incorporation of an undeclared substance, or an excess of a declared substance, into a product in order to increase its volume or apparent weight while reducing cost.

Examples:

• Honey diluted with high-fructose corn syrup
• Milk diluted with water (and stabilised with starch)
• Fruit juice diluted with water and sugar
• Olive oil with added chlorophyll to maintain colour

6.3 Manipulation (concealment)

Deliberate concealment of quality defects, damage, contamination, spoilage or non-conformities through the treatment, processing or presentation of the product.

Examples:

• Treating decomposing meat with sulphites or other chemicals to hide spoilage
• Relabelling expired products with new use-by dates
• Treating fish with carbon monoxide to maintain the appearance of freshness
• Mixing contaminated lots with conforming lots to dilute the contamination

6.4 Misrepresentation (misleading description)

False or misleading claims about a product on its label, accompanying documentation or commercial communications, with the aim of increasing its perceived value.

Examples:

• False claim of geographical origin (e.g. "olive oil from Italy" that actually comes from another country)
• False claim of production method (e.g. "organic" without certification)
• False claim of species (e.g. "bluefin tuna" when it is another species)
• False claim of nutritional or quality attributes

6.5 Unapproved enhancements

Addition of undeclared and unapproved substances to artificially improve the characteristics of the product (colour, flavour, texture, apparent nutritional value).

Examples:

• Adding melamine to milk to simulate a higher protein content
• Adding Sudan Red to chilli and paprika to intensify the colour
• Adding formaldehyde to fishery products as an unauthorised preservative
• Adding non-permitted colourings to spices

6.6 Counterfeiting

Production and sale of products that imitate the brand, appearance, design or presentation of a legitimate product protected by intellectual property, without the authorisation of the rights holder.

Examples:

• Reproduction of well-known brand labels on generic products
• Imitation of products with a protected designation of origin (PDO/PGI)
• Copying of premium brand packaging on lower-quality products
• Counterfeit products sold through unauthorised channels

6.7 Stolen goods

Legitimate products that have been stolen and reintroduced into the supply chain, frequently with tampered documentation, with no guarantee that appropriate storage and transport conditions have been maintained.

Examples:

• Theft of shipments in transit and insertion into parallel channels
• Diversion of discarded or seized products onto the market
• Internal theft of finished product and resale
• Humanitarian aid products diverted to the commercial market

The taxonomy, applied

The seven types look obvious as you read them and stop being obvious the moment you classify a real case: fish treated with carbon monoxide is manipulation, not an unapproved enhancement, and that distinction decides which countermeasure applies. The eight cases below are drawn from the examples in this chapter.

ExerciseClassify the case0/8

Which type of fraud is this?

Horse meat sold as beef in processed meat products (Europe, 2013).

SubstitutionAddition (dilution)ConcealmentMisrepresentationUnapproved enhancementCounterfeitingStolen goods